Topic Overview
What is pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)?
Pelvic
inflammatory disease (PID) is an infection of a woman’s reproductive organs.
See a picture of the
organs inside the pelvis.
Treating PID right away is important,
because PID can cause scar tissue in the pelvic organs and lead to
infertility. It can also lead to other problems, such
as
pelvic pain and
tubal (ectopic) pregnancy.
What causes PID?
PID is caused by bacteria
entering the reproductive organs through the cervix. When the cervix is
infected, bacteria from the vagina can more easily get into and infect the
uterus and fallopian tubes.
You may be more likely to get PID if
you:
- Have a sexually transmitted infection (STI).
The most common causes of PID are
gonorrhea and
chlamydia.
- Are at risk for STIs. You are
at higher risk for STIs if you are young and you don't use condoms when you
have sex. Having more than one sex partner also increases your risk for
STIs.
- Have
bacterial vaginosis, which is not an
STI.
- Douche.
- Have recently had an IUD inserted or had
an abortion.
- Had PID before.
What are the symptoms?
At first, PID may not cause
any symptoms or may cause only mild symptoms, such as bleeding or discharge
from the vagina. Some women don't even know they have it. They only find out
later, when they can't get pregnant or they have
pelvic pain.
As the infection spreads,
the most common symptom is pain in the lower belly. The pain has been described
as crampy or as a dull and constant ache. It may be worse during sex, bowel
movements, or when you urinate. Some women also have a fever.
How is PID diagnosed?
Even though PID causes mild
or no symptoms, it can still cause serious problems. So you need to understand
what puts you at risk for PID or STIs and see your doctor if you have any
unusual symptoms.
Your doctor will ask about your lifestyle and
symptoms. He or she will examine you and do tests to see if you have PID. The
test results may take some time. For this reason, your doctor will treat you
for the disease before the test results are ready. Treating PID early is
important to prevent problems later on.
Your doctor may test you
for the most common causes of PID and may also do blood tests to look for signs
of infection. Your doctor may also order an
ultrasound to see if there are other possible causes
of your symptoms. An ultrasound may also show if there is damage to the
fallopian tubes, uterus, or ovaries from PID.
How is it treated?
To treat PID, you will need to
take antibiotics. Take them as directed. If you don't take all of the medicine,
the infection may come back.
If your infection was caused by an
STI, your sex partner(s) will also need to be treated so you don't get infected
again. Do not have sex until both of you have finished your medicine, and be
sure to follow up with your doctor to make certain that the treatment is
working.
If you have a very bad case of PID or are pregnant and
infected, you may need to stay in the hospital and get antibiotics through a
vein (intravenous). Sometimes surgery is needed to drain a
pocket of infection, called an
abscess.
Can you prevent PID?
Your risk of infertility
increases each time you have PID, so it is very important to prevent future
infections. Using a condom each time you have sex can reduce your chance of
getting an STI that could lead to PID.
Frequently Asked Questions
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Learning about pelvic inflammatory disease (PID):
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Being diagnosed:
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Ongoing concerns:
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Cause
PID, sexually transmitted infection (STI), and bacterial vaginosis
Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)
is
usually caused by a
sexually transmitted infection (STI) that infects the
cervix, which connects the upper vagina to the uterus.
When the cervix is infected with an STI, it becomes easier for other bacteria
present in the vagina to get into and infect the uterus and fallopian tubes.
PID can also develop as a result of
bacterial vaginosis (BV), which is a drop in the
vagina's "good" organisms and an increase in its potentially "bad" organisms.
When this happens and the problem organisms spread into the uterus and
fallopian tubes, PID can result. (BV is not sexually transmitted.) See a
picture of the
female pelvic organs.
The most common causes of PID are:
-
Gonorrhea
, a
sexually transmitted bacterial infection.
-
Chlamydia
, a
sexually transmitted bacterial infection. PID caused by chlamydia is most
common among teenagers and young adult women.
PID caused by chlamydia may have milder symptoms or no
symptoms (compared with PID caused by gonorrhea), which can delay
diagnosis.
Practicing safe sex by using condoms prevents STIs. This greatly lowers PID risk. For more information, see the
Prevention section of this topic.
For more information, see the
topics
Gonorrhea,
Chlamydia, and
Bacterial Vaginosis.
PID and intrauterine devices (IUDs)
Women who have
an
intrauterine device (IUD) inserted for birth control
have a higher risk of getting PID in the first month after insertion,
especially if bacterial vaginosis or an STI is present at the cervix at the
time of insertion. The insertion procedure may transfer bacteria from the
vagina or cervix to the uterus. Your risk of infection can be reduced
if:
- You are tested and treated for STIs and
bacterial vaginosis (if detected) before IUD insertion.
- The
insertion is done carefully to minimize the chance of infection (clean
technique).
PID that spreads to abdominal organs
PID can
spread to other abdominal organs, either from the pelvic organs through the
lymphatic system or from the far ends of the
fallopian tubes. This may be more common in women who
have just:
- Given birth.
- Had uterine tests or
other procedures, such as:
- Had an abortion.
Symptoms
Symptoms of
pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) range from none at
all to severe.
It's common to think that PID symptoms are a sign
of something less serious. Many women who have pelvic organ damage caused by
PID report that they've never been diagnosed with PID. This is particularly
true of PID that is caused by
chlamydia, which may cause no symptoms.
PID symptoms often do not appear until infection and inflammation have
spread to the fallopian tubes or the lining of the abdomen (peritoneum). Symptoms of PID tend to be more
noticeable during
menstrual bleeding and sometimes in the week
following.
The main symptom of PID is lower abdominal pain,
usually described as crampy or as constant and dull. This pain may get worse
during bowel movements, sexual intercourse, or urination. You may also have one
or more other symptoms, including:
- A sense of pressure in the
pelvis.
- Low back pain. Sometimes this pain spreads down one or both
legs.
- Abnormal discharge—such as yellow-, brown-, or green-colored
discharge—or an increased amount of discharge from the
vagina.
- Fever [usually over
101°F (38.33°C)]. But you can
have PID without fever.
- A vague feeling of body weakness or
discomfort (malaise).
- Headache.
- Nausea or
vomiting.
- Pain during sex (dyspareunia).
- Irregular
menstrual bleeding.
- Urinary symptoms, such as burning or pain with
urination.
Be sure to see your doctor when you
have any of the above symptoms, because PID and several
other conditions with similar symptoms require prompt
treatment.
What Happens
Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)
usually starts with a bacterial infection and
inflammation of the cervix (cervicitis).
This is usually caused by
gonorrhea or
chlamydia. PID is also linked to an imbalance of the
organisms normally found in the vagina (bacterial vaginosis). The bacteria then spread to other
female reproductive organs.
Sometimes PID starts after bacteria
are carried beyond the cervix by an invasive procedure. This could be the
insertion of an
intrauterine device (IUD), a
dilation and curettage (D&C), an induced abortion,
or a
hysterosalpingogram test (which uses a tube to inject
dye through the cervix into the uterus and fallopian tubes for X-ray
imaging).
In some cases, infection moves into a
fallopian tube and
ovary. This can form a pocket of pus called a
tubo-ovarian abscess. After having this problem, as
many as 93% of women cannot become pregnant.1
PID causes inflammation in the uterus and fallopian tubes. In turn, the
inflammation can form scar tissue (adhesions) in
the abdominal cavity and the reproductive organs. This does not always cause
symptoms. The scar tissue can lead to:
-
Infertility
.
Scarring inside the fallopian tubes is permanent and can twist or block the
tubes with scar tissue or fluid, leading to tubal infertility. About 1 out of
10 women cannot become pregnant after having PID once. After having PID three
or more times, as many as 7 out of 10 women become infertile.1
-
Chronic pelvic pain
, affecting nearly 2
out of 10 women who have had PID.2 Chronic (ongoing)
pelvic pain is usually caused by internal scarring (adhesions) and is difficult
to treat. For more information, see the topic
Chronic Female Pelvic Pain.
-
Tubal (ectopic) pregnancy. About 1 out of 10 pregnancies that follow PID are
in a fallopian tube.2 Scar tissue can trap a
fertilized egg in a fallopian tube, where it begins to grow. This can become a
life-threatening problem. It must be treated right away with medicine or
surgery to end the pregnancy.
PID may also occur inside the abdomen as:
- A pocket of pus (abscess) in the
pelvis.
- An infection and inflammation of the lower abdomen (pelvic peritonitis).
- Inflammation around
the outside of the liver (perihepatitis).
The longer PID treatment is delayed, the more likely you
are to have permanent damage. Similarly, each
recurrent pelvic infection increases your risks of
tubal infertility, chronic pelvic pain, and ectopic pregnancy.
What Increases Your Risk
You have an increased risk
for developing
pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) if you:
- Are at
risk for getting a sexually transmitted infection (STI). Sexually active teens
and young women have the highest rate of STIs. This is almost always
from having sex without using a condom. The cells of the
transformation zone in a younger woman's cervix are
most likely to be infected with
chlamydia and
gonorrhea, two common STIs.
- Have had PID
before. If you have had PID once, your reproductive tract may be less able to
clear a new infection because of scar tissue from past PID.
- Have
had chlamydia before, which can lead to a "hypersensitive response" when you
are exposed to the bacteria again. A second infection can cause more irritation
and pelvic organ damage that is worse than the first time.
- Douche.
Doctors advise against douching because it increases your risk for vaginal and
pelvic infections.
- Douching may change the acidity of the
vagina. This can help more "bad" bacteria grow, while killing off "good"
bacteria, such as lactobacilli.
- Douching
done incorrectly may flush bacteria from the vagina into the uterus.
Use condoms to avoid exposure to sexually transmitted infections (STIs).
Some gynecological procedures can increase your risk of
PID by introducing bacteria into the reproductive tract. Such medical
procedures include:
PID is rare in women who are not sexually active, don't
have menstrual periods, are pregnant, or have had their uterus or ovaries
removed during a
hysterectomy.
When To Call a Doctor
Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)
symptoms often don't
develop until inflammation or scar tissue (adhesions)
develop. Scar tissue can cause
ongoing (chronic) pelvic pain,
infertility, and
ectopic pregnancy. For this reason, immediate medical
attention is necessary to treat possible PID symptoms or complications.
Call your doctor immediately if you have abdominal
pain and any of the following:
- A positive home pregnancy test (possible
ectopic pregnancy)
- Fever of
101°F (38.3°C) or
higher
- Pain or difficulty urinating
Call your doctor to find out when an evaluation is needed
if you:
- Have a dull pain, unusual or persistent
cramping, or a feeling of pressure in the lower abdomen.
- Need to
urinate frequently or have pain, burning, or itching with urination for longer
than 24 hours.
- Have pain during sex (dyspareunia), especially in
the abdomen.
- Have
abnormal vaginal bleeding.
- Suspect that
you have been exposed to a
sexually transmitted infection (STI).
- Have
a vaginal discharge that is yellow or green or smells bad.
- Have
bleeding between menstrual periods.
- Bleed after sexual intercourse
or after vaginal douching.
- Have a sex partner who has any symptoms
of an STI (such as discharge, genital sores, or pain in the genital
area).
If you have not been diagnosed with PID but you have
symptoms that concern you, see the following topics:
Watchful Waiting
Any symptoms or other changes that suggest PID
or a sexually transmitted infection (STI) should be evaluated by a doctor as soon as
possible. Watchful waiting is not appropriate.
- Early treatment (within 48 to 72 hours after
symptoms begin) may reduce or prevent complications of PID.
- To
prevent spreading a possible infection, avoid sexual intercourse until you are
evaluated.
To prevent reinfection from an STI, be sure that anyone
you have had sexual contact with has been tested, treated if necessary, and
uses condoms when you resume sexual relations.
Who To See
The following health
professionals can diagnose and treat pelvic inflammatory disease (PID):
Complications of PID are usually treated by a
gynecologist.
To prepare for your appointment, see the topic Making the Most of Your Appointment.
Exams and Tests
Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)
is often difficult to diagnose because:
- PID symptoms vary and can be mistakenly linked
to other health conditions.
- There is no single test that can detect
PID. It is diagnosed by the combination of your medical history, your symptoms,
a physical exam, and lab test results.
- It is hard to examine the
inside of the abdomen or a fallopian tube to see whether an infection is
present.
Guidelines for PID care urge prompt treatment, even when
only the minimal
clinical criteria for the diagnosis of PID are met and
even before laboratory test results are available.3
This means that you may be given antibiotic treatment right away, based on your
risk factors, medical history, and physical exam. Delaying treatment for
several days could increase your risks of fallopian tube damage and
infertility.
Medical history
To learn about your medical
history, your doctor may ask you the following questions.
- Is it possible that you are
pregnant?
- Do you think you were exposed to any
sexually transmitted infections (STIs)? How do you know?
Did your partner tell you?
- What are your symptoms?
- Do you have vaginal discharge? If you
have discharge from the vagina, it is important to note any smell or
color.
- Do you have sores in the genital area or anywhere else on
your body?
- Do you have any urinary symptoms, including frequent
urination, burning or stinging with urination, or urinating in small
amounts?
- What method of birth control do you use? Do you
use condoms to protect against STIs?
- Do you or your partner engage
in high-risk sexual behaviors, including sex without a
condom?
- Do you or your partner have other sexual contact outside of
your relationship?
- Have you had an STI in the past? How was it
treated?
- Have you had PID in the past? How was it
treated?
- When was your last menstrual period?
Physical exam
After your medical history is taken,
the initial exam for PID will include a
pelvic exam.
Laboratory and imaging tests
A
pregnancy test is done to rule out the possibility of
a tubal (ectopic) pregnancy.
Tests for
gonorrhea,
chlamydia, and
bacterial vaginosis are done, because they are most
commonly linked to PID. These are done during your pelvic exam.
Other tests may be done to confirm the diagnosis of PID, to rule out other
problems (such as
appendicitis), or to find out whether the infection
has spread. These tests include:
Laparoscopy and ultrasound are considered the best
procedures for diagnosing PID. But these tests are not done unless the
diagnosis is in doubt or the results from the procedure will change the method
used for treatment.
Early Detection
There is no standard screening for pelvic
inflammatory disease (PID) at this time. But routine annual screening of young,
sexually active women for
chlamydia is thought to reduce the number of cases of
PID and is recommended by experts.
Be sure to have a gynecologic
exam promptly whenever you notice pelvic infection symptoms or pelvic pain. If
you have been exposed to an STI, see your doctor for testing right away. If you
are diagnosed with an STI, especially
gonorrhea or
chlamydia, you will be treated and evaluated for PID.
Your partner(s) must also have treatment for the STI.
Women who
have recently been infected with the
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) also should be
checked for other STIs.
Treatment Overview
Untreated
pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) can produce scar
tissue (adhesions) that can cause
ongoing (chronic) pelvic pain,
ectopic pregnancy, and
infertility. This is why PID must be treated right
away, even if you have only one or two
signs of PID.3 This means
that you may be given antibiotic treatment before lab results have come back,
based on your medical history and a physical exam. This is because waiting
several days to treat you could raise your risks of fallopian tube damage and
infertility.4
Initial treatment
Antibiotic treatment
for
pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) usually takes 14
days. But the number of days you continue to take antibiotics depends on your
infection and the type of antibiotic medicine. Your partner will also need
treatment. Although you may feel better before the 2 weeks are up, be sure to
finish taking the medicine. If you don't, the infection may return. You may
also be able to use a
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) to relieve
PID pain or discomfort.
Follow-up evaluations are important for
making sure that treatment is working. Close monitoring may be able to prevent
complications, such as chronic pelvic pain and infertility. Your doctor will
want to check you 2 to 3 days after you've started treatment, then 7 to 10 days
later. You will also have a checkup 4 to 6 weeks after treatment has ended, to
monitor your recovery.
What to think about
If you have an
intrauterine device (IUD) for birth control in place
and you develop PID, your doctor will give you antibiotics to treat the infection. You may not need to have the IUD removed, depending on how severe the infection is.3
Your doctor will
recommend hospitalization if you are pregnant, are very ill, are vomiting, may
need surgery for a
tubo-ovarian abscess or
ectopic pregnancy (which can result from PID), or
aren't able to treat yourself at home.
Anyone with whom you have
had sexual contact in the last 60 days should be evaluated and treated for
sexually transmitted infections (STIs) to prevent
reinfection and passing infection on to someone else. Treatment for
gonorrhea or
chlamydia is not the same as treatment for PID.
Different antibiotics are sometimes prescribed for PID, and they are taken for
a longer period of time. Your partner will probably also need to take
antibiotics.
To prevent reinfection, do not have sex until both
you and your sex partner(s) have completed antibiotic treatment.
Ongoing treatment
If initial antibiotic treatment
cures the infection that caused
pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), you will not need
ongoing treatment. But it is important to make sure the infection is cured by
following up with your doctor.
Avoiding a
recurrent pelvic infection, particularly involving a
sexually transmitted infection (STI), is the key to preventing another episode of
PID. Regular condom use reduces the risk of recurrent
PID. (Having repeat episodes of PID increases your
risks of tubal infertility,
chronic pelvic pain, and
ectopic pregnancy. For more information, see the
Prevention section of this topic.)
Treatment if the condition gets worse
Most cases
of
PID are cured with antibiotic therapy. Surgery is not
usually necessary to treat PID. But surgery may be needed to:
- Drain or remove a pocket of infection (abscess).
- Cut scar tissue (adhesions) that is causing pain. (Surgery to remove
adhesions from pelvic inflammatory disease has not been proved to relieve pain
unless adhesions are severe.5)
Exploratory surgery is sometimes used when a diagnosis is
still unclear after other tests are done or when antibiotic treatment is not
working. Diagnostic
laparoscopy (which involves using a small lighted
viewing instrument) is usually used.
What to think about
To avoid reinfection, it is
critically important that you and your sex partner(s) be
treated.
After having PID, it's important that you have any
further pelvic symptoms checked promptly. Your doctor will want to examine you
for signs of another infection, possible pelvic organ damage (adhesions), and
other possible causes of your symptoms.
Prevention
You can prevent
pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) by using condoms.
This helps protect you from
sexually transmitted infections (STIs) that cause PID.
If you have had
chlamydia (a common cause of PID) one time in the
past, you might now be more sensitive to this bacteria. A second chlamydia
infection can cause more irritation and pelvic organ damage that is worse than
before. For this reason, it's very important that you use condoms to avoid
being exposed to STIs. After having had PID, using a condom every time you have
sex lowers your risk of recurrent PID and
ongoing (chronic) pelvic pain.
Practice safe sex
Preventing an STI is easier than
treating an infection after it occurs. Abstaining from sexual contact is the
only certain way to avoid exposure to STIs. Consistent condom use will greatly
reduce your risk of an STI infection that can lead to PID. Even if you are
using another birth control method to prevent pregnancy, use condoms to reduce
infection risk.
- Talk with your partner about STIs before
beginning a sexual relationship. Find out whether he or she is at risk for an
STI. Remember that most STIs, like chlamydia and herpes, can infect you without
causing symptoms, so only test results can tell whether your partner is
infection-free. Some STIs, such as
HIV, can take up to 6 months before they can be
detected in the blood.
- Be responsible.
- Avoid sexual contact if you have symptoms
of an STI or are being treated for an STI.
- Avoid all intimate
sexual contact with anyone who has symptoms of an STI or who may have been
exposed to an STI.
- Don't have more than one sex partner at a time. Your risk for
an STI increases if you have several sex partners at the same time.
Condom use
Use a condom every time you have sex.
This lowers your risk of getting an STI or PID. You must put on a condom before
beginning any sexual contact. Use condoms with a new partner until you are
certain he or she does not have an STI.
You can use a male or
female condom. A female condom is a good option for a woman whose partner does
not have or will not use a male condom. For information about male and female
condoms, see
how to use a condom.
Douching
Avoid douching,
which increases your risk for vaginal and pelvic infections.
Home Treatment
Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)
and
sexually transmitted infections (STIs) require prompt
medical treatment. If you have any unusual pelvic symptoms or pain, see your
doctor without delay, even if your symptoms don't seem serious.
After you have started medical treatment for PID, your doctor will give
you specific instructions for home care. Be sure to follow those instructions
and keep all follow-up appointments.
Use the following home
treatment measures to support your recovery.
- Rest as much as possible until your symptoms
start to get better (usually a couple of days), then return to your usual
activities slowly.
- Take regular doses of a
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), such as
ibuprofen, for pain. If pain does not improve within 48 to 72 hours after you
start treatment, tell your doctor.
- Do not have sex until you've
taken all antibiotic medicine, your pain is gone entirely, and you feel
completely well. Also, do not have sex until your partner or partners have
finished treatment for any sexually transmitted infections
(STIs).
- Make and keep follow-up appointments. Your doctor will want
to see you 2 to 3 days after you've started antibiotics to make sure they are
working. You may also be seen for follow-up 7 to 10 days later to make sure you
are getting better and to talk about how to avoid another infection. You may
have an additional follow-up exam at 4 to 6 weeks to see whether you've fully
recovered.
- Call your doctor if your symptoms get worse or come
back.
Medications
The treatment of choice for
pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is usually 2 weeks
of a broad-spectrum antibiotic, which kills more than one type of bacteria. But
the number of days you continue to take antibiotics depends on your infection
and the type of antibiotic medicine. If taken properly, antibiotics will
destroy the bacteria causing PID. Prompt antibiotic treatment may prevent
complications from PID or reduce their severity.
Treatment is
started even when you meet only the
minimum criteria for PID with or without other
symptoms. Treatment for
gonorrhea or
chlamydia is not the same as treatment for PID.
Different antibiotics are sometimes used for PID, and they are taken for a
longer period of time.
To prevent reinfection, sex partners with
or without symptoms must also be tested for sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
(particularly gonorrhea and chlamydia). Any infection must be immediately
treated.
It sometimes takes more than one course of medicine to
cure PID. Sometimes bacteria can become resistant to an antibiotic, meaning
that the antibiotic is no longer effective against the bacteria. This makes it
necessary to try another type of antibiotic.
Reinfection from an
untreated sex partner also requires another round of antibiotic
treatment.
Medication Choices
-
Antibiotics for pelvic inflammatory
disease
What To Think About
Delaying treatment for pelvic
inflammatory disease (PID) increases the risk of future problems such as
ongoing (chronic) pelvic pain,
ectopic pregnancy, and
infertility.
The treatment for PID
usually takes 2 weeks. But the number of days you continue to take antibiotics
depends on your infection and the type of antibiotic medicine. It is very
important that you take all the medicine, or the infection can come
back.
Surgery
Surgery is not usually done to treat
pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) unless it is needed
to:
Surgery is sometimes used when a diagnosis is still unclear
after other tests are done or when antibiotic treatment is not working.
Diagnostic
laparoscopy is usually used.
Surgery Choices
Procedures that may be used to diagnose and treat the
complications of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) include:
-
Laparoscopy,
which allows the surgeon to insert a lighted viewing instrument through a very
small abdominal incision, look for signs of
ectopic pregnancy or infection and scar tissue, and
make repairs if necessary.
-
Laparotomy, which
allows the surgeon to directly inspect the abdominal cavity through a small
incision in the abdomen and make repairs if necessary.
-
Drainage of an abscess using a needle and syringe. The doctor usually uses
ultrasound to clearly see where the needle is going,
which makes an incision unnecessary.
What To Think About
Surgery to remove
adhesions caused by pelvic inflammatory disease has
not been proved to relieve pain unless adhesions are severe (referred to as
stage IV adhesions).5
The need for
surgical treatment of PID has decreased over the past several years because of
earlier diagnosis and better antibiotic treatment.
Laparoscopy or
laparotomy may be done for diagnosis of pelvic symptoms, and treatment can be
done at the same time. Laparoscopy is used more often. Laparotomy typically
requires a longer recovery period.
Other Places To Get Help
Organizations
|
American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists
(ACOG)
|
| 409 12th Street SW |
| P.O. Box 96920 |
| Washington, DC 20090-6920 |
| Phone: |
(202) 638-5577 |
| Email: |
resources@acog.org |
| Web Address: |
www.acog.org |
| |
|
American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists
(ACOG) is a nonprofit organization of professionals who provide health care for
women, including teens. The ACOG Resource Center publishes manuals and patient
education materials. The Web publications section of the site has patient
education pamphlets on many women's health topics, including reproductive
health, breast-feeding, violence, and quitting smoking.
|
|
|
American Social Health Association
|
| P.O. Box 13827 |
| Research Triangle Park, NC 27709 |
| Phone: |
1-800-227-8922
(919) 361-8400 |
| Fax: |
(919) 361-8425 |
| Email: |
info@ashastd.org (general information) |
| Web Address: |
www.ashastd.org |
| |
|
The mission of the American Social Health Association is
to improve the health of individuals, families, and communities, with a focus
on preventing sexually transmitted diseases and their harmful
consequences.
|
|
|
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC):
National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB
Prevention
|
| 1600 Clifton Road |
| Atlanta, GA 30333 |
| Phone: |
1-800-CDC-INFO (1-800-232-4636)
(404) 639-3534 |
| TDD: |
1-888-232-6348 |
| Email: |
cdcinfo@cdc.gov |
| Web Address: |
www.cdc.gov/nchstp/od/nchstp.html |
| |
|
The National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD,
and TB Prevention is a branch of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC). Their Web site provides information and updates on sexually transmitted
diseases (STDs), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and tuberculosis (TB). You
can also find fact sheets on these health topics.
|
|
|
National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases
(NIAID), National Institutes of Health
|
| NIAID Office of Communications and Public Liaison |
| 6610 Rockledge Drive, MSC 6612 |
| Bethesda, MD 20892-6612 |
| Phone: |
1-866-284-4107 toll-free
(301) 496-5717 |
| Fax: |
(301) 402-3573 |
| TDD: |
1-800-877-8339 |
| Web Address: |
www3.niaid.nih.gov |
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The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious
Diseases conducts research and provides consumer information on infectious and
immune-system-related diseases.
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STD National Hotline
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| Phone: |
1-800-227-8922 |
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The hot line is available Monday through Friday, 8 a.m. to 11 p.m.,
Eastern standard time. It provides education, research, and public policy
information on sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), including minor and major
STD infections. Referrals, information on prevention, and free pamphlets are
available.
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References
Citations
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Soper DE (2010). Infections of the female pelvis. In Mandell, Douglas and Bennett's Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, 7th ed., vol. 1, pp. 1511–1519. Philadelphia: Churchill Livingstone Elsevier.
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Paavonen J, et al. (2008). Pelvic inflammatory disease. In KK Holmes et al., eds., Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 4th ed., pp. 1017–1050. New York: McGraw-Hill.
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American Academy of Pediatrics (2009). Pelvic
inflammatory disease. In LK Pickering et al., eds., Red Book: 2009 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases, 28th ed., pp.
499–504. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics.
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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2006,
updated 2007). Pelvic inflammatory disease section of Sexually transmitted
diseases treatment guidelines, 2006. MMWR, 55(RR-11):
56–61.
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American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists
(2004, reaffirmed 2008). Chronic pelvic pain. ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 51.
Obstetrics and Gynecology, 103(3): 589–605.
Other Works Consulted
- Ross J (2007). PID, search date May 2007. Online version of BMJ Clinical Evidence: http://www.clinicalevidence.com.
Credits
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By
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Healthwise Staff |
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Primary Medical Reviewer
|
Sarah Marshall, MD - Family Medicine |
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Specialist Medical Reviewer
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Kirtly Jones, MD - Obstetrics and Gynecology |
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Last Revised
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November 23, 2010 |